AP US History 3.6-3.7: Articles of Confederation and Constitution

Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were the first constitution of the United States. They created a loose confederation that operated from 1781 until it was replaced by the Constitution in 1789.

Why did the Second Continental Congress seek a written constitution during the Revolutionary War?

American leaders needed a formal framework for governing the states and coordinating the war effort. A written constitution could also help establish legitimacy and reassure foreign powers that the new nation was organized and capable of making agreements.

What three major documents did Congress arrange to prepare in 1776?

Congress organized the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, a model treaty for foreign relations, and a plan of confederation. Together, these addressed independence, international diplomacy, and domestic political organization.

Who chaired the committee that drafted the Articles of Confederation?

John Dickinson of Pennsylvania chaired the committee of thirteen appointed by the Second Continental Congress. The committee included one representative from each colony.

What major issues caused debate during the drafting of the Articles?

Delegates debated state sovereignty, the powers of Congress, western land claims, voting procedures, and whether the union should have a judiciary. The final agreement favored strong state autonomy and a central government with limited powers.

When were the Articles of Confederation drafted, ratified, and put into effect?

The final draft was completed on November 15, 1777. Maryland became the final state to ratify the Articles on February 2, 1781, and they officially took effect on March 1, 1781.

Why was Maryland initially reluctant to ratify the Articles of Confederation?

Maryland objected to western land claims held by states such as Virginia. It wanted those claims ceded to the Union before it accepted the Articles.

What did the Articles call the union of the states?

They described the states as entering a perpetual "league of friendship" for common defense, protection of liberty, and mutual welfare. The union was intended to be permanent.

What was the central principle of the Articles of Confederation?

The Articles prioritized the sovereignty, independence, and freedom of the individual states. The central government received only the powers that the states explicitly delegated to it.

What did the Articles mean by declaring that each state retained its sovereignty?

Each state kept every governmental power not expressly given to Congress. This left the national government dependent on the states for many essential functions.

How was representation organized under the Articles of Confederation?

The Confederation Congress had a unicameral legislature, and each state received one vote regardless of population or wealth. Each state could send between two and seven delegates, chosen by its legislature.

What restriction did the Articles place on congressional delegates?

A delegate could serve no more than three years in any six-year period. This reflected concern about concentrated national power and professional political office.

How could the Articles of Confederation be amended?

An amendment required approval by Congress and ratification by every state legislature. This unanimity requirement made meaningful reform extremely difficult.

What was the role of the president of Congress under the Articles?

The president of Congress presided over sessions and chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess. This office was administrative and ceremonial, not an independent executive position like the later presidency.

What was the Committee of the States?

It was a smaller body that could exercise some congressional powers while Congress was in recess. It could not exercise powers requiring the approval of nine states.

What administrative powers did Congress have under the Articles?

Congress could establish uniform weights and measures, regulate the postal system, appoint military officers, and oversee the armed forces. These powers did not include a broad executive bureaucracy or national judiciary.

How did the Articles handle major decisions such as declaring war or approving treaties?

Congress held the authority to declare war, make peace, and conduct foreign relations. However, at least nine of the thirteen states had to approve especially important actions, including war, treaties, major spending, and appointing a commander in chief.

What powers did Congress have over foreign affairs under the Articles?

Congress could conduct diplomacy, exchange ambassadors, make treaties and alliances, regulate captures at sea, and issue letters of marque and reprisal. The states generally could not conduct independent foreign policy.

What were letters of marque and reprisal?

They were government authorizations allowing private vessels to attack and seize enemy ships. Under the Articles, Congress could issue them during wartime and, under certain conditions, in peacetime.

What limits did the Articles place on state foreign relations and military activity?

States could not make their own treaties, accept foreign titles or gifts, or form separate leagues. They could not wage war unless invaded or facing imminent danger, and they generally could not maintain peacetime armies or navies, though militias were required.

How were military officers selected under the Articles?

When a common army was raised, state legislatures selected officers at the rank of colonel and below. This preserved significant state control over the military.

What rules did the Articles establish for relations among the states?

Citizens could generally travel between states and receive equal treatment under the host state's laws, with exceptions for paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice. A person accused of a crime who fled to another state could be extradited for trial in the state where the crime occurred.

How did the Articles address disputes between states?

Congress could serve as the final authority in interstate disputes. It could appoint impartial commissioners or create a special court whose decision would be final.

What judicial powers did Congress possess under the Articles?

Congress could establish courts for piracy and crimes on the high seas and appellate courts for maritime captures. Members of Congress could not simultaneously serve as judges in these courts.

How could the Confederation Congress obtain money?

Congress could request funds from the states, with requests apportioned according to population or property. It had no independent authority to levy taxes or compel states to pay.

Why was the Confederation Congress chronically short of money?

The Articles denied Congress direct taxation power, so it depended on state contributions. States frequently failed to meet requisitions, leaving the government unable to reliably fund the army, pay debts, or operate its programs.

What were the consequences of Congress's inability to tax?

The government struggled to pay soldiers, obtain supplies, and meet financial obligations. Congress also issued paper money, but its value declined sharply, contributing to the expression "not worth a Continental."

Why did the Articles make it difficult to maintain the Continental Army?

Congress could request troops, supplies, and money but could not force states to provide them. This produced shortages of soldiers, food, equipment, and pay, sometimes placing the army in severe danger.

What military problems continued after the Revolutionary War under the Articles?

Congress struggled to pay veterans' promised pensions, bounties, and land grants. Unpaid soldiers participated in disturbances such as the Newburgh Conspiracy and the 1783 Pennsylvania veterans' revolt, demonstrating the government's weakness.

How did the Articles limit congressional control over commerce?

Congress could not regulate foreign trade or interstate commerce. States therefore adopted competing trade policies and tariffs, creating economic conflicts and interstate protectionist barriers.

How did the Articles weaken American foreign policy?

Low attendance and the lack of enforcement power often prevented Congress from acting decisively. The United States had difficulty funding a navy, enforcing treaties, controlling its frontier, and negotiating from a position of strength.

What did the proposed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty reveal about the Confederation government?

The proposal would have restricted American use of the Mississippi River for twenty-five years in exchange for Spanish commercial benefits. Its consideration showed how economic divisions and weak national authority complicated foreign policy.

Why did Great Britain initially refuse to evacuate frontier forts after the Treaty of Paris?

Britain cited American failures to honor treaty provisions, including commitments involving Loyalists and compensation. The weak Confederation government lacked the power to force Britain to comply.

Why did the Articles function poorly despite providing a written framework?

The system combined broad responsibilities with weak enforcement mechanisms: Congress could make decisions but could not reliably raise revenue, regulate commerce, compel military support, or ensure attendance. State sovereignty therefore often prevented coordinated national action.

What did the Articles accomplish despite their weaknesses?

They provided a legal framework for coordinating the Revolutionary War, diplomacy, territorial policy, and relations among the states. Their land ordinances also created important precedents for surveying western territory and admitting future states.

What were the Land Ordinance of 1785 and its lasting significance?

The ordinance created a rectangular survey system dividing western land into townships, sections, and quarter-sections. A township covered $36$ square miles, a section covered $1$ square mile, and a quarter-section covered $160$ acres.

What did the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 accomplish?

It organized the Northwest Territory, established a process for creating new states, and prohibited slavery in those territories. It also encouraged public education and protected certain civil and religious rights.

Which future states developed from the Northwest Territory?

The territory eventually contributed to Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Its organization established a model for later westward expansion.

Did any new states join the Union under the Articles of Confederation?

No new state was admitted under the Articles. Proposals involving places such as Franklin, Kentucky, and Vermont were considered but not approved.

What was unusual about the Articles' provision concerning Canada?

The Articles specifically allowed the Province of Quebec, called Canada in the document, to join the Union if it chose to do so. No similar automatic invitation was extended to other colonies.

What was the significance of Shays's Rebellion in the movement to replace the Articles?

Shays's Rebellion highlighted the instability of the postwar economy and the inability of the Confederation government to respond effectively. It strengthened calls for a national government with greater financial and coercive powers.

What was the purpose of the Annapolis Convention of 1786?

Delegates met to address trade barriers among the states, but too few states participated for major action. The meeting helped lead to the call for a broader convention in Philadelphia.

Why did the Constitutional Convention of 1787 replace rather than simply amend the Articles?

Delegates concluded that the Articles' structural weaknesses could not be fixed through ordinary amendments, especially because amendments required unanimous state approval. They therefore drafted an entirely new Constitution with a stronger federal government.

What government did the Articles of Confederation replace?

The Constitution replaced the government under the Articles on March 4, 1789. The new system created a stronger federal government with an executive, national courts, and taxation authority.

How did the Constitution address major weaknesses of the Articles?

It created an executive president, a national judiciary, and federal taxation authority. It also gave Congress stronger powers over commerce, national defense, and the enforcement of federal law.

What was the main purpose of the Constitutional Convention?

The convention met in Philadelphia in 1787 to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Rather than merely amend the Articles, delegates drafted a new framework for a stronger federal government.

How did the Virginia and New Jersey Plans differ?

The Virginia Plan favored representation based on population and a stronger national government, while the New Jersey Plan favored equal representation for each state and preserved more state power. Their conflict reflected the tension between large and small states.

What compromise resolved the dispute over congressional representation?

The Great Compromise created a bicameral Congress. Representation in the House of Representatives would be based on population, while every state would have two senators.

How did the Constitution address slavery in representation and taxation?

The Three-Fifths Compromise counted three-fifths of the enslaved population for representation and direct taxation. This increased the political power of slaveholding states while denying enslaved people political rights.

What arguments did Federalists make in support of the Constitution?

Federalists argued that the Articles had created an ineffective national government and that the Constitution would provide national security, economic stability, and orderly relations among the states while limiting abuses through checks and balances.

What arguments did Anti-Federalists make against the Constitution?

Anti-Federalists feared that the stronger federal government would threaten state sovereignty and individual liberty. They objected especially to the absence of a bill of rights and the potential power of the presidency, Congress, and federal courts.

How did the debate over ratification lead to the Bill of Rights?

Several states ratified the Constitution while demanding protections for individual liberties. To answer Anti-Federalist objections and secure broader acceptance, the new government proposed amendments that became the Bill of Rights.

What is the Bill of Rights?

The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It protects liberties such as freedom of speech and religion, due process, and protections against unreasonable government searches and prosecutions.