AP US History 3.1-3.2: Seven Years' War and Colonial Resistance

French and Indian War

The 1754–1763 North American conflict between Great Britain and France, fought with the support of competing Indigenous nations. It is generally considered the North American theater of the global Seven Years' War.

Why did Britain and France come into conflict in North America after 1748?

Although the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended their formal war in 1748, both powers continued competing over trade, fisheries, settlement, and territorial claims, especially in the Ohio Country.

What territorial dispute most directly triggered the French and Indian War?

Britain and France both claimed the Forks of the Ohio, where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet. The location was strategically important because it controlled routes through the Ohio Valley.

Battle of Jumonville Glen

A May 1754 engagement in which Virginia militia led by George Washington ambushed a French patrol. It is commonly treated as the opening battle of the French and Indian War.

Why was the Battle of Jumonville Glen significant?

The attack intensified the territorial dispute between Britain and France and helped transform a colonial confrontation into a larger war.

What was the outcome of the Braddock Expedition?

Edward Braddock's 1755 attempt to capture Fort Duquesne ended in disaster at the Battle of the Monongahela. Braddock was mortally wounded, and the French and their Indigenous allies defeated the British force.

How did the war develop from 1755 through 1757?

Several British operations in Pennsylvania and New York failed, while French forces achieved important successes. Britain did capture Fort Beauséjour, after which French settlers were expelled from Acadia over the following years.

What were the major British conquests in North America from 1758 to 1760?

Britain captured key French positions, including Quebec in 1759 and Montreal in 1760. The fall of Montreal largely ended organized French resistance in North America.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

The treaty ended the Seven Years' War and transferred France's Canadian possessions and its claims east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. France retained Saint Pierre and Miquelon and transferred Louisiana west of the Mississippi to Spain in a separate agreement.

How do Americans and many Europeans differ in naming the conflict?

In the United States, it is commonly treated as a distinct war called the French and Indian War. Canadians and Europeans generally view it as the North American theater of the Seven Years' War.

Why is the name 'French and Indian War' historically imprecise?

Indigenous nations fought on both the French and British sides, so the name refers to Britain's principal enemy and its Indigenous allies rather than describing all participants.

Compare the colonial populations of British America and New France around 1750.

British settlers outnumbered the French roughly 20 to 1: British America had about 1.5 million people, while New France had about 75,000, concentrated mainly along the St. Lawrence River.

Why did France's smaller population not immediately prevent it from competing effectively in North America?

French settlements were concentrated along waterways, while French traders and trappers maintained extensive commercial and diplomatic relationships throughout the interior. France also recruited Indigenous allies familiar with the terrain and woodland warfare.

What was the geographic pattern of British settlement before the war?

British population centers were concentrated along the Atlantic coast, but colonial settlements were expanding inland under broad, overlapping land claims.

What was the economic importance of the Ohio Country?

The region offered access to inland trade routes and the lucrative fur trade. Both British and French authorities viewed control of the Ohio Valley as essential to protecting commerce and expanding territorial influence.

Coureurs des bois

French-Canadian fur traders and trappers who traveled through the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, traded with Indigenous communities, and often formed family and political ties with them.

What roles did Indigenous alliances play in the war?

Indigenous nations supplied military support, local knowledge, trade connections, and diplomatic leverage. Their alliances were not uniform: some supported France, some Britain, and others attempted to remain neutral or shifted positions.

Why did the Iroquois Confederacy initially try to remain neutral?

Neutrality allowed the Iroquois to preserve trade with both French and British colonists and to maximize their diplomatic influence. Maintaining neutrality became difficult as colonial expansion and competing trade interests increased.

Which major Indigenous groups generally supported Britain, and which generally supported France?

The Iroquois Six Nations and, initially, the Cherokee supported Britain. France drew support from several western Great Lakes peoples, including Wyandots, Mississaugas, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi; other nations pursued neutrality or made choices based on local interests.

How did the Cherokee-British relationship change during the war?

The Cherokee initially supported Britain, but disagreements later produced the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758, demonstrating that alliances could break down even between wartime partners.

Céloron's expedition

A 1749 French expedition through the Ohio Country intended to reaffirm French territorial claims, discourage British trade and settlement, and strengthen French relationships with Indigenous nations.

Why did Céloron's expedition fail to secure French control of the Ohio Country?

Although Céloron delivered warnings and displayed French power, local Indigenous leaders continued trading with British colonists. His report concluded that many communities were strongly attached to British commercial relationships.

How did French policy in the Ohio Country escalate from 1749 to 1753?

Céloron had mainly marked French claims and issued warnings, whereas later French forces constructed and garrisoned forts at strategic locations. This physical assertion of control alarmed British colonists and the Iroquois.

What was the purpose of the French fort network in the Ohio Country?

The forts were intended to protect France's claim to the Ohio Valley, control important transportation routes, support trade, and block British expansion from the east.

Fort Duquesne

A strategically located French fort at the Forks of the Ohio that helped France control access to the Ohio Valley. Its presence was a central source of British concern and a major target of British operations.

Treaty of Logstown

A 1752 agreement in which local Indigenous representatives permitted Virginia and the Ohio Company to build a fortified trading structure near the Monongahela River. The agreement reflected the complicated and contested nature of Indigenous and colonial territorial claims.

Why did the Ohio Company of Virginia encourage British action in the Ohio Country?

The company received a land grant for trade and settlement, so French occupation threatened its potential profits and territorial claims. Virginia's government therefore had both political and economic reasons to challenge France.

What did Tanacharison's response to the French fortifications reveal?

As a Mingo leader aligned with the Iroquois sphere, Tanacharison opposed French expansion and warned the French at Fort Le Boeuf. His response showed that Indigenous diplomacy and territorial interests were central to the conflict.

How did British colonial political organization affect the war effort?

The colonies often operated independently of one another and of officials in London, making unified military planning difficult. British army leaders later tried to impose greater coordination and demands on colonial governments.

How did French and British military forces differ at the beginning of the war?

New France relied on colonial regulars called the Troupes de la Marine, local militia, and Indigenous allies, with few or no French metropolitan regulars initially stationed in America. British colonies relied heavily on locally raised militia, although Virginia had some British regular troops.

What happened to Acadia during the war?

Britain captured Fort Beauséjour in 1755 and subsequently expelled many French settlers from Acadia. New England settlers were brought in to replace them over the next several years.

What made the British victory possible despite early defeats?

Britain possessed a much larger colonial population and eventually committed greater military resources. Under William Pitt, Britain concentrated on capturing French strongholds in North America while France had difficulty supplying New France.

Why is the French and Indian War considered part of a global conflict?

The North American fighting was connected to the Seven Years' War, which also involved major operations in Europe, the Caribbean, West Africa, India, and other regions. Competition between Britain and France therefore extended well beyond the American colonies.

How did the French and Indian War change Britain's relationship with its colonies?

The war increased Britain's need to manage and defend its expanded North American empire. Britain attempted to tighten imperial control and make the colonies help pay wartime debts, while colonists resented new restrictions and taxes.

Why did the war contribute to colonial resistance after 1763?

Britain's large war debt led Parliament to seek more revenue from the colonies and to enforce imperial policies more strictly. Many colonists resisted because they were unaccustomed to direct taxation by Parliament and believed their colonial assemblies should control taxation.

Proclamation of 1763

A British measure issued after the French and Indian War that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains and reserved the region for Indigenous peoples. It was intended to reduce frontier conflict and organize Britain's new territory.

Why did many colonists oppose the Proclamation of 1763?

Colonists, land companies, and veterans expected to settle or profit from western lands acquired during the war. The boundary therefore seemed to limit colonial expansion and interfered with existing land claims.

How did the end of the French threat affect the colonies' relationship with Britain?

With France largely removed from mainland North America, colonists felt less dependent on British military protection. At the same time, Britain sought tighter control over its empire, creating tensions that contributed to later colonial resistance.