AP US History 3.8-3.9: The New Republic

George Washington's presidency

Washington served as the first U.S. president from April 30, 1789, through March 4, 1797. He was unanimously elected in 1788–1789, unanimously reelected in 1792, and succeeded by Vice President John Adams.

Why was George Washington reluctant to become president in 1789?

Washington preferred to retire from public life and doubted his experience in civil administration. Public appeals from citizens and prominent political figures persuaded him that his leadership was important to the new government's success.

What was distinctive about Washington's elections in 1788–1789 and 1792?

Washington was unanimously elected by the Electoral College in both elections. In the first election he received 69 electoral votes, and in 1792 he received all 132 electoral votes.

How did the original constitutional method for choosing the president and vice president work?

Each elector cast two votes for president without distinguishing between the offices. The candidate with the most votes became president, and the runner-up became vice president; the Twelfth Amendment later established separate electoral votes for the two offices.

How was John Adams elected vice president in 1788–1789?

Adams received the second-highest number of electoral votes, 34, and therefore became vice president under the original constitutional system. The remaining 35 electoral votes were divided among other candidates.

When and where was Washington inaugurated as the first U.S. president?

He took the presidential oath on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City, then the nation's capital. Chancellor Robert Livingston administered the oath because the federal judiciary had not yet been established.

What major challenge delayed the start of the new federal government in 1789?

Congress could not assemble a quorum by the scheduled March 4 start date because of the difficulties of long-distance travel. The House reached a quorum on April 1 and the Senate on April 6.

Why did Washington agree to seek a second term in 1792?

Although he wanted to retire, cabinet members argued that his popularity, moderation, and experience were needed during the instability created by partisan conflict and the French Revolutionary Wars. He ultimately accepted reelection.

What were the results of the 1792 presidential election?

Washington won unanimously with 132 electoral votes, while John Adams was reelected vice president with 77. George Clinton received 50 votes, Thomas Jefferson 4, and Aaron Burr 1.

Which major executive departments and offices were established or organized during Washington's presidency?

Congress reestablished the foreign affairs and war departments and renamed the former Finance Office as the Department of the Treasury. It also created the offices of attorney general and postmaster general; Washington began holding joint cabinet meetings in 1791.

Who were the most influential members of Washington's first cabinet?

Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state, had the greatest influence. Their opposing views on economic policy and foreign affairs helped shape the administration's emerging political divisions.

How did Washington's cabinet change during his presidency?

Jefferson left in 1793 and was replaced as secretary of state by Edmund Randolph. Hamilton, Randolph, and Henry Knox later departed; Oliver Wolcott Jr., Timothy Pickering, James McHenry, William Bradford, and Charles Lee filled important cabinet positions.

What was the constitutional role of the vice president during Washington's presidency?

The vice president's primary official responsibility was presiding over the Senate. John Adams participated actively in Senate debates and cast 29 tie-breaking votes, but Washington sought his advice only infrequently and Adams attended few cabinet meetings.

What controversy arose over the title used for the president?

John Adams favored grand titles such as "His Highness," but many legislators feared monarchical language. The House ultimately settled on the simple title "Mr. President," although Washington was often addressed as "Your Excellency" in practice.

Washington's first presidential veto

On April 5, 1792, Washington used the veto for the first time to reject an apportionment bill that he believed violated the Constitution. Congress then passed a revised Apportionment Act, which he signed.

How often did Washington use the presidential veto?

Washington used the veto only twice during his presidency. His limited use reflected his reluctance to interfere unnecessarily with the legislative branch.

What salaries did Congress establish for the president and vice president in 1789?

Congress set the president's salary at $25,000 per year and the vice president's at$5,000 per year. Washington's salary equaled about two percent of the federal budget in 1789.

Judiciary Act of 1789

The Judiciary Act organized the federal court system by establishing the Supreme Court, lower federal courts, and 13 judicial districts. It created district courts, circuit courts, and the office of the attorney general.

What was the structure of the Supreme Court created by the Judiciary Act of 1789?

The act established a six-member Supreme Court consisting of one chief justice and five associate justices. Washington appointed the entire original Court.

Who was Washington's first nominee for chief justice, and who ultimately became the third chief justice?

John Jay was Washington's first chief justice. After Jay resigned and John Rutledge's recess appointment was rejected by the Senate, Washington appointed Oliver Ellsworth as the third chief justice.

What happened to John Rutledge's nomination as chief justice in 1795?

Washington gave Rutledge a recess appointment after Jay's resignation, but the Senate rejected his formal nomination. Rutledge had alienated senators by strongly criticizing the Jay Treaty and resigned after the rejection.

What types of cases did the early federal district and circuit courts handle?

Single-judge district courts primarily handled admiralty cases, minor crimes, and smaller civil claims. Circuit courts, made up initially of a district judge and two Supreme Court justices, handled more serious crimes, major civil cases, and appeals from district courts.

What were the central goals of Hamilton's economic program supported by Washington?

The program strengthened federal finances by having the national government assume state debts and by creating the First Bank of the United States, the U.S. Mint, and the Customs Service. Revenue came partly from tariffs and an excise tax on whiskey.

Which federal revenue measures did Congress pass during Washington's presidency?

Congress enacted the Tariff of 1789, the Tariff of 1790, and an excise tax on whiskey. Tariffs raised revenue and helped address the trade imbalance with Great Britain, while the whiskey tax helped fund the federal government.

What caused the Whiskey Rebellion, and how did Washington respond?

Western farmers resisted the federal excise tax on whiskey, which particularly affected regions where grain was commonly distilled because transporting it as whiskey was easier. Washington federalized troops and personally led them to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating federal authority.

How did political parties emerge during Washington's presidency?

Supporters of Hamilton's economic policies formed the Federalist Party. Opponents associated with Thomas Jefferson organized the Democratic-Republican Party, and disagreements over economics, the French Revolution, and the Jay Treaty intensified partisan divisions.

What was Washington's position on political parties?

Washington was never formally affiliated with a political party and tried to maintain unity between rival factions. In practice, his support for Hamiltonian policies led critics to argue that his administration contributed to the partisanship he hoped to avoid.

What was the purpose of Washington's 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality?

The proclamation announced that the United States would remain neutral in the wars connected to the French Revolution. It sought to preserve domestic peace and prevent the young nation from being drawn into European conflicts.

Jay Treaty

The 1794 Jay Treaty improved relations between the United States and Great Britain and promoted trade. It helped resolve several post-Revolutionary tensions, although its negotiation deepened domestic partisan conflict.

Treaty of San Lorenzo

The 1795 Treaty of San Lorenzo with Spain promoted trade and helped secure the American frontier. It strengthened U.S. control and access in areas important to western expansion.

Why did Washington support reestablishing the U.S. Navy?

American shipping faced threats from Barbary pirates and other maritime dangers. The Naval Act of 1794 authorized the rebuilding of a national navy to protect commerce and American vessels.

How did Washington address Native American resistance in the Northwest Territory?

He directed the Northwest Indian War, through which the United States established control over Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory. The conflict was part of the broader issue of federal expansion into Native American lands.

Why was Washington's presidency especially important for the development of the U.S. government?

As the first president under the Constitution, Washington created precedents for executive administration, cabinet consultation, judicial appointments, veto use, neutrality, and peaceful transfer of power. His administration also tested the balance between federal authority and state or popular resistance.

How was the location of the permanent national capital resolved during Washington's presidency?

Congress and the administration agreed to establish the permanent capital on the Potomac River, while Philadelphia served temporarily as the seat of government. The decision reflected a compromise between competing regional interests.

What themes did Washington emphasize in his Farewell Address?

Washington warned that intense political factionalism could undermine national unity and cautioned against permanent alliances that might entangle the United States in European conflicts. He also urged Americans to preserve constitutional government and national cohesion.

What happened in the election of 1796?

Washington's retirement produced the first contested presidential election. Federalist John Adams won the presidency, while Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson became vice president under the original electoral system.