AP Psychology 2.3-2.4: Introduction to Memory and Encoding

Memory

Memory is the information-processing system used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.

What are the three basic functions of memory?

Encoding puts information into the memory system, storage retains encoded information, and retrieval brings stored information back into conscious awareness.

Encoding

Encoding is the process of receiving, organizing, and converting information into a form that can enter the memory system.

How do automatic and effortful processing differ?

Automatic processing encodes details such as time, space, frequency, and word meaning with little conscious effort. Effortful processing requires attention and deliberate work, as when studying new material.

Why does meaningful information tend to be remembered better than confusing information?

Meaningful information can be connected to existing knowledge and organized within a broader context, creating more retrieval routes and stronger encoding.

Semantic encoding

Semantic encoding is the encoding of words and information according to their meaning.

Visual encoding

Visual encoding is the encoding of images or visual features. Concrete, high-imagery words are often easier to remember because they can be represented as mental pictures.

Acoustic encoding

Acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, including the sound and rhythm of spoken words. Songs, rhymes, and repetition can strengthen this type of encoding.

Which type of encoding generally produces the strongest memory for verbal information, and why?

Semantic encoding generally produces the strongest memory because it involves deeper processing of meaning rather than only visual appearance or sound.

Levels-of-processing hypothesis

The levels-of-processing hypothesis proposes that deeper, meaning-based processing produces better memory than shallow processing of appearance or sound.

Self-reference effect

The self-reference effect is the tendency to remember information better when it is related to oneself or one's personal experiences.

Storage

Storage is the retention or creation of a lasting record of encoded information.

What sequence of storage stages is proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

Information passes through sensory memory, short-term memory, and then long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory is the very brief storage of incoming sensory information, such as sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures. It usually lasts up to a couple of seconds.

What determines whether information moves from sensory memory into short-term memory?

Attention and perceived importance determine which sensory information is selected for further processing; unattended information is usually discarded.

Short-term memory

Short-term memory is a temporary system that receives selected information from sensory memory and holds it for approximately $15\text{–}30$ seconds without continued rehearsal.

How are short-term memory and working memory related?

Short-term memory is a component of working memory. Working memory is a broader system for actively holding and manipulating information.

What are the major components of Baddeley and Hitch's working-memory model?

The model includes a visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and central executive. The central executive coordinates information flow among these systems and helps transfer information into long-term memory.

Central executive

The central executive directs attention and coordinates the flow of information among working-memory systems.

Phonological loop

The phonological loop is a working-memory system that temporarily holds and rehearses spoken or written verbal information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The visuospatial sketchpad is a working-memory system that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Episodic buffer

The episodic buffer is a working-memory system that temporarily integrates information from different sources, including verbal, visual, and long-term-memory information.

What is the classic estimate for short-term memory capacity, and what is the more contemporary estimate for working-memory capacity?

The classic estimate is about $7\pm2$ items, or roughly 5–9 items. More recent research often estimates working-memory capacity at about $4\pm1$ items.

Active rehearsal

Active rehearsal maintains information by repeatedly practicing or repeating it. With sufficient repetition, information may be transferred from short-term memory into long-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal connects new information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory, making the new information more meaningful and easier to retrieve.

How do decay and proactive interference affect short-term memory?

Decay occurs when a memory trace becomes less activated over time. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information disrupts the learning or recall of newer information.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory is the relatively continuous storage of information for periods longer than a few minutes. Its storage capacity is generally considered very large or effectively unlimited.

What must happen after information reaches long-term memory for the memory to become stable?

The memory must undergo consolidation at the synaptic level over several hours and within broader memory systems over weeks or longer.

Semantic network

A semantic network is an associative organization of concepts, facts, images, and experiences. Related concepts are linked, and frequently associated concepts tend to have stronger connections.

Spreading activation

Spreading activation is the process by which activating one concept partially activates related concepts in a semantic network, making those associated concepts easier to access.

What are the two major divisions of long-term memory?

Long-term memory is divided into explicit memory and implicit memory.

Explicit memory

Explicit memory consists of information that can be consciously recalled and reported. It is also called declarative memory.

Implicit memory

Implicit memory influences behavior or performance without conscious awareness or deliberate recollection. It includes procedural memory, priming, and conditioned emotional responses.

How are explicit and implicit memory different?

Explicit memory involves conscious recollection of facts or events, whereas implicit memory is expressed through skills, altered responses, or learned associations without conscious recall.

Episodic memory

Episodic memory is explicit memory for personally experienced events, including their what, where, and when. It is often recalled as an autobiographical story.

Semantic memory

Semantic memory is explicit memory for general knowledge, word meanings, concepts, language, and facts rather than personally experienced events.

How do episodic and semantic memory differ?

Episodic memory concerns personally experienced events situated in a particular time and place. Semantic memory concerns general facts and knowledge that are not tied to a specific personal episode.

Procedural memory

Procedural memory is implicit memory for how to perform skills and actions, such as riding a bicycle, driving, or brushing one's teeth.

Why is procedural memory considered implicit?

Skilled actions can often be performed automatically without conscious awareness, and people may be unable to fully explain the precise steps that guide their performance.

Priming

Priming occurs when prior exposure to a stimulus changes the speed, likelihood, or nature of a later response. Activating related concepts in a semantic network can make particular words or ideas more accessible.

Implicit emotional conditioning

Implicit emotional conditioning is an unconscious learned emotional response to a stimulus, such as a positive or nostalgic reaction triggered by a particular smell or song.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of bringing information from memory storage back into conscious awareness.

How can retrieval cues improve access to long-term memories?

Retrieval cues activate associated information in memory networks, helping a person access a memory that might not be retrieved spontaneously.

What are the three major forms of retrieval?

Recall retrieves information without a provided cue, recognition identifies previously learned information when it is encountered again, and relearning involves acquiring information again more quickly because it was learned previously.

Recall

Recall is retrieving previously stored information without being given the information or a set of possible answers. Essay questions primarily test recall.

Recognition

Recognition is identifying information as familiar or previously learned when it is encountered again. Multiple-choice questions primarily rely on recognition.

Relearning

Relearning is acquiring previously learned information again, usually more rapidly than the first time because some memory remains.

Hyperthymesia

Hyperthymesia, or highly superior autobiographical memory, is the rare ability to recall an unusually large number of personal life events with exceptional detail.