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Ohm's Law
, where is voltage, is current, and is resistance.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the node.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of all electrical voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero.
Thevenin's Theorem
Any linear electrical network with voltage and current sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source and a series resistance.
Norton's Theorem
Any linear electrical network can be simplified to a single current source in parallel with a single resistor.
Capacitance
The ability of a system to store charge per unit voltage, measured in Farads (F).
Inductance
The property of a conductor by which a change in current creates an electromotive force (EMF) in the conductor and nearby conductors, measured in Henrys (H).
What is the time constant in an RC circuit?
The time constant is , the product of resistance and capacitance , representing the time it takes to charge the capacitor to ~63.2% of the supply voltage.
Resistor Color Code for 4-band Resistors
First two bands are digits, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is tolerance. Example: Red-Red-Black-Gold = 22Ω ±5%.
Node Voltage Analysis
A method for determining the voltage at each node relative to a reference node by applying KCL.
Mesh Current Analysis
A method for determining currents in a planar circuit by applying KVL around each mesh.
Superposition Theorem
In a linear circuit with multiple sources, the current or voltage for any element is the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced by each source acting independently.
What is the phase relationship between voltage and current in a purely resistive AC circuit?
Voltage and current are in phase, meaning their waveforms peak at the same time.
Impedance
The combination of resistance and reactance in an AC circuit, measured in Ohms (Ω).
RMS Voltage
The root mean square voltage of an AC circuit, equivalent to a DC voltage that delivers the same power.
What is the characteristic impedance of a transmission line?
It is the impedance that a transmission line presents to a signal, determined by the line's inductance and capacitance per unit length.
What is the power factor in AC circuits?
The ratio of real power to apparent power, indicating the efficiency of power usage. It is the cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin or Norton resistance of the network supplying the power.
What is a Bode Plot?
A graph that represents the frequency response of a system, showing magnitude and phase shift as functions of frequency.
Bandpass Filter
A circuit that allows signals within a certain frequency range to pass while attenuating frequencies outside that range.
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
A high-gain voltage amplifier with differential inputs and typically a single-ended output, used in signal conditioning, filtering, or mathematical operations.
What is slew rate in an op-amp?
The maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time, typically expressed in volts per microsecond (V/μs).
Zener Diode
A semiconductor device that allows current to flow in the forward direction like a regular diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage.
What is a frequency response?
The quantitative measure of the output spectrum of a system or device in response to a stimulus, showing how the system amplifies or attenuates different frequencies.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
A measurement of the harmonic distortion present in a signal, defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic components to the power of the fundamental frequency.
What is a voltage divider?
A simple linear circuit that produces an output voltage that is a fraction of its input voltage, typically using two resistors.
What is mutual inductance?
The phenomenon where a change in current in one inductor induces a voltage in another nearby inductor, measured in Henrys (H).
What is a transient response?
The response of a circuit to a change from equilibrium, such as when a switch is turned on or off, before reaching a steady state.
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