AP US History 9.3-9.4: End of Cold War and Economy

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The breakup of the USSR as a sovereign state between 1988 and 1991, culminating in its formal dissolution on December 26, 1991. It ended Communist Party rule, the Soviet federal government, and the USSR's status as a subject of international law.

What were the major underlying causes of the Soviet Union's dissolution?

Major causes included chronic economic stagnation, the financial burden of the arms race and foreign conflicts, ethnic nationalism and separatism, political and economic stalemate, and the destabilizing effects of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms.

Era of Stagnation

The period before Gorbachev characterized by weak economic growth, bureaucratic rigidity, limited political reform, and declining confidence in the Soviet system. Its unresolved problems created pressure for major changes in the 1980s.

Glasnost

Gorbachev's policy of greater openness in public discussion and the media. It exposed corruption, repression, historical abuses, and economic failures while allowing nationalist and opposition movements to organize more openly.

Perestroika

Gorbachev's program of restructuring the Soviet political and economic system to overcome stagnation. The reforms weakened central controls without creating a stable replacement system, contributing to political conflict and economic disruption.

Demokratizatsiya

Gorbachev's policy of introducing greater political participation and limited electoral competition. Competitive elections for the Congress of People's Deputies expanded public debate, although the Soviet Union remained dominated by the Communist Party until 1990.

When did Mikhail Gorbachev become General Secretary, and what was his initial objective?

Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on March 11, 1985. His initial objective was to revive the stagnating economy, which he concluded required broad political and social reform.

Why did Gorbachev's reforms unintentionally threaten the survival of the Soviet Union?

Greater openness allowed suppressed ethnic grievances, demands for sovereignty, and criticism of Communist rule to spread. Political liberalization also weakened the central government's authority before effective new institutions had been established.

How did the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe affect the Soviet Union's dissolution?

The largely peaceful overthrow of Soviet-backed communist governments demonstrated that Moscow would no longer reliably enforce its control over the Eastern Bloc. These events increased pressure for democracy and autonomy inside the Soviet republics and weakened Soviet influence abroad.

What was the significance of Andrei Sakharov's return to Moscow in December 1986?

Sakharov, a prominent dissident, was allowed to return from internal exile after Gorbachev personally contacted him. His return symbolized the expansion of political liberalization and the reduced repression of public dissent.

What political conflict involving Boris Yeltsin became important to the Soviet collapse?

Yeltsin criticized Gorbachev's reforms as too slow and challenged the authority of the Communist leadership. His dismissal from Moscow's party leadership in 1987 helped him gain popularity as an anti-establishment figure and later made him a powerful rival to Gorbachev.

Helsinki-86

An openly anti-Communist Latvian organization founded in 1986. It helped establish a model for organized opposition and national independence movements elsewhere in the Soviet Union.

Jeltoqsan

The December 1986 protests and riots in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan. They began after Gorbachev replaced the ethnic Kazakh Communist leader Dinmukhamed Kunaev with Gennady Kolbin, an outsider from the Russian republic, and became an important expression of national resentment.

What did the Baltic nationalist movements seek during the late 1980s?

Movements such as Sąjūdis in Lithuania, the Popular Fronts in Latvia and Estonia, and other groups sought greater sovereignty and ultimately independence from the Soviet Union. Their activism became central to the first successful declarations of independence.

What was the first union republic to declare state sovereignty, and when did it do so?

Estonia was the first union republic to declare state sovereignty, on November 16, 1988.

What was the first Soviet republic to declare independence?

Lithuania was the first union republic to declare independence, doing so in March 1990.

Baltic Way

A large peaceful human chain formed across Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in August 1989. It demonstrated coordinated Baltic opposition to Soviet rule and symbolized the demand for national independence.

What was the pattern of the 'parade of sovereignties'?

Union republics increasingly asserted that their own laws and institutions had priority over Soviet central authority. This produced a continuing political and legislative conflict between Moscow and the republic governments and accelerated the fragmentation of the federation.

Why were ethnic tensions especially destabilizing in the late Soviet period?

The USSR contained multiple national groups whose political and cultural grievances had often been suppressed. Glasnost enabled those grievances to become mass movements, while disputes over territory, language, and political control generated separatism and violence.

What were the principal political developments in Moscow during 1990–1991?

The central government lost authority as republic governments asserted sovereignty, while Boris Yeltsin emerged as the elected leader of the Russian SFSR. The rivalry between the Russian republic and the Soviet Union made it increasingly difficult for Gorbachev to preserve a unified state.

Why was Boris Yeltsin's position as president of the Russian SFSR important?

Russia was the largest and most powerful Soviet republic, so its elected president controlled resources and institutions that could challenge Gorbachev's central government. Yeltsin used Russian sovereignty and popular legitimacy to support the transfer of power from the USSR to Russia.

What was the August Coup of 1991?

It was an unsuccessful attempt by Communist hardliners and senior officials to remove Gorbachev, stop his reforms, and preserve centralized Soviet rule. Its failure severely weakened the Communist Party and the central government while strengthening Yeltsin and republican independence movements.

How did the failure of the August 1991 coup accelerate the Soviet breakup?

The coup revealed that the central leadership could not reliably control the military or political system. After it collapsed, republics declared independence in rapid succession, and the Communist Party lost much of its authority.

Belovezh Accords

The December 8, 1991 agreement signed by the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declaring that the Soviet Union no longer existed. It also created the Commonwealth of Independent States as a new association among former Soviet republics.

Which three republics signed the Belovezh Accords?

The Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Byelorussian SSR signed the accords on December 8, 1991.

What was the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in relation to the Soviet Union?

The CIS was a looser association established to replace the Soviet Union after its dissolution. Eleven independent states joined its founding arrangements, although the CIS did not recreate the USSR's centralized political structure.

Which republic was the last to declare independence from the Soviet Union?

Kazakhstan was the last union republic to declare independence, on December 16, 1991.

What happened on December 25 and December 26, 1991?

On December 25, Gorbachev resigned and transferred presidential powers, including control of nuclear launch codes, to Russian President Boris Yeltsin; the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin. On December 26, the Soviet of the Republics formally dissolved the USSR.

How many independent states emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union?

The USSR dissolved into 15 independent post-Soviet states: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the three Baltic states, the three South Caucasus republics, and the five Central Asian republics.

Which state became the internationally recognized successor to the Soviet Union?

Russia became the recognized successor state because it was by far the largest and most populous former republic. It inherited the Soviet Union's permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and much of its international legal standing.

How did the dissolution of the Soviet Union affect the Cold War?

It marked the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet-led bloc. The United States emerged as the world's sole superpower, while communist and far-left movements worldwide declined.

What economic changes followed the Soviet Union's dissolution?

The new republics moved toward capitalist market economies, often through disruptive reforms and privatization. A shared ruble zone continued in much of the former USSR from roughly 1991 to 1994 before national currencies became more common.

What happened to the Soviet Armed Forces after 1991?

The unified Soviet military was divided among the successor states around 1992–1993. The breakup also required the relocation of Soviet forces from East Germany and other parts of Central Europe.

What were major social consequences of the post-Soviet economic transition?

Many former Soviet citizens experienced a loss in the value of their savings and reduced access to social and medical support. Economic disruption contributed to declining living standards and excess mortality in several successor states.

Why did the dissolution lead to post-Soviet conflicts?

The Soviet collapse left unresolved disputes over borders, territory, political authority, and ethnic identity. Armed conflicts and ethnic clashes followed in and around several former autonomous regions, producing humanitarian crises and internal displacement.

What happened to separatist movements in former Soviet autonomous regions?

Some proclaimed independence, but many failed militarily or later returned to their republics through negotiation. Others became long-running de facto breakaway territories, contributing to instability after the dissolution.

How did the Soviet collapse affect Cuba and North Korea?

The end of Soviet economic support contributed to Cuba's severe economic crisis known as the Special Period. North Korea also lost important Soviet assistance, worsening its economic difficulties.

What was the significance of the dissolution for China?

China remained the world's most populous communist state after the Soviet collapse. The event demonstrated the dangers of political breakdown while China continued pursuing its own controlled economic reforms under Communist Party rule.

How did the Baltic states differ from many other post-Soviet republics in their foreign-policy orientation?

Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania generally moved away from Russia's sphere of influence and toward Western political, economic, and security institutions. This contrasted with several other post-Soviet states that retained closer ties with Russia through organizations such as the CIS or CSTO.