AP US History 8.10-8.11: End of Period 8

Richard Nixon's presidency

Richard Nixon served as the 37th president of the United States from January 20, 1969, until his resignation on August 9, 1974. He remains the only U.S. president to resign from office.

Why was Nixon's 1968 election victory historically significant?

Nixon narrowly defeated Democrat Hubert Humphrey and American Independent candidate George Wallace during a period of major unrest over Vietnam, civil rights, protests, and urban riots. He presented himself as a candidate of stability and appealed to the so-called "silent majority."

How did Nixon reorganize policymaking within the executive branch?

Nixon relied heavily on the Executive Office of the President rather than the Cabinet. He strengthened the National Security Council, reorganized the Bureau of the Budget into the Office of Management and Budget, and created the Domestic Council to coordinate domestic policy.

Which White House aides were especially influential in Nixon's administration?

Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman and adviser John Ehrlichman were major influences on domestic affairs. National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger became especially powerful in foreign policy and later also served as secretary of state.

How did Nixon's approach to Cabinet management differ from his approach to White House staff?

Nixon centralized important decisions in the White House and often relied on Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and other advisers. At the same time, he gave Cabinet officials considerable freedom in policy areas that did not personally interest him, including much of environmental policy.

How did Henry Kissinger's role change during Nixon's presidency?

Kissinger initially served as national security adviser while William Rogers was secretary of state. In 1973, Kissinger replaced Rogers as secretary of state while continuing as national security adviser.

What happened to Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973?

Agnew resigned on October 10, 1973, after pleading no contest to tax evasion in connection with allegations that he accepted kickbacks. His case was separate from the Watergate investigation.

How did the Twenty-Fifth Amendment apply during Nixon's presidency?

Nixon used the amendment's procedures to nominate Gerald Ford as vice president after Agnew's resignation. Congress confirmed Ford, who took office on December 6, 1973, filling the first midterm vacancy in the vice presidency.

How did Gerald Ford become president after Nixon's resignation?

Gerald Ford, whom Nixon had appointed vice president, became president after Nixon resigned. Ford had first succeeded Spiro Agnew as vice president under the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.

How did Nixon's judicial appointments affect the federal courts?

Nixon appointed 231 federal judges, including four Supreme Court justices, 46 appellate judges, and 181 district judges. His appointments generally moved the Supreme Court in a more conservative direction.

Which Supreme Court chief justice did Nixon appoint?

Nixon nominated Warren E. Burger to replace Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Senate confirmed Burger by a vote of 74–3 in June 1969.

Which Supreme Court nominees of Nixon were rejected by the Senate?

The Senate rejected Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, both Southern federal appellate judges nominated to replace Associate Justice Abe Fortas. Nixon subsequently nominated Harry Blackmun, who was confirmed.

Which Supreme Court justices did Nixon appoint after the 1971 vacancies?

Nixon appointed Lewis F. Powell Jr. and William Rehnquist after the retirements of Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II. Rehnquist later became chief justice in 1986.

How did the Nixon-appointed Supreme Court justices differ ideologically?

Burger, Powell, and Rehnquist generally developed conservative voting records. Harry Blackmun, another Nixon appointee, moved toward the political left during his time on the Court.

What was Nixon's domestic-policy philosophy of New Federalism?

New Federalism sought to transfer some federal powers and responsibilities to state governments. Nixon faced a Democratic-controlled Congress that often rejected or modified his proposals.

What happened to Nixon's proposed welfare reform?

Nixon's broad welfare reform proposal failed to pass Congress. However, Congress adopted Supplemental Security Income, which provides assistance to low-income people who are elderly or disabled.

What was Nixon's record on school desegregation and affirmative action?

Although his administration maintained a low public profile on desegregation, it enforced court-ordered desegregation. It also implemented the first affirmative-action plan in the United States.

Which major environmental developments occurred during Nixon's presidency?

The administration helped create the Environmental Protection Agency and supported major environmental laws, including the Clean Water Act. Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act, but Congress overrode the veto.

What economic conditions did Nixon inherit in 1969?

Inflation was approximately 4.7%, the highest level since the Korean War, while unemployment was relatively low. Interest rates were also at their highest level in a century, and federal deficits had been enlarged by the Great Society and Vietnam War.

What monetary approach did Nixon's administration initially use to fight inflation?

The administration attempted to restrict growth in the money supply while also trying to reduce federal spending. These measures did not resolve inflation.

What did the Tax Reform Act of 1969 establish?

The act established the alternative minimum tax. It applied to wealthy individuals who used deductions to reduce their ordinary tax liabilities.

What were the major elements of Nixon's 1971 economic program?

Nixon imposed temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the dollar's convertibility into gold. These actions effectively removed the United States from the gold standard and helped end the Bretton Woods fixed-exchange-rate system.

Bretton Woods system

The Bretton Woods system was a post–World War II international monetary arrangement based on fixed exchange rates, with the U.S. dollar convertible into gold. Nixon's 1971 decision ended the dollar's convertibility and effectively dismantled the system.

Why did Nixon reimpose price controls in 1973?

Inflation accelerated, especially as food prices rose, and the administration sought to limit price increases. The renewed controls were unpopular, contributed to shortages, and gradually lost voluntary compliance.

What economic problems intensified during Nixon's second term?

The economy experienced a stock-market decline, increasing inflation, and the 1973 oil crisis. By Nixon's resignation, unemployment had risen from 3.5% to 5.6%, while inflation had increased from 4.7% to 8.7%.

How did the 1973 oil crisis contribute to economic problems in the United States?

The oil crisis sharply increased energy prices and worsened inflation and economic stagnation. It contributed to the broader pattern of stagflation that continued through the 1970s.

Stagflation

Stagflation is the combination of high inflation and economic stagnation, often including rising unemployment. The term became associated with the economic difficulties that began during Nixon's presidency and continued through the 1970s.

What was Nixon's main foreign-policy objective?

Nixon prioritized détente, or the easing of Cold War tensions, especially in relations with the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union.

Détente

Détente was Nixon's policy of reducing Cold War tensions through diplomacy and arms-control negotiations with the Soviet Union, along with improved relations with China.

What was the significance of Nixon's opening to China?

Nixon's administration improved relations with the People's Republic of China, culminating in Nixon's 1972 visit to Beijing. The opening altered the balance of Cold War diplomacy and increased pressure on the Soviet Union.

Which arms-control agreements did Nixon sign with the Soviet Union?

Nixon signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and SALT I. Both agreements limited aspects of the U.S.-Soviet nuclear arms competition.

Nixon Doctrine

The Nixon Doctrine called for the United States to provide indirect assistance, such as weapons and support, rather than making direct U.S. military commitments in every conflict. It was intended to shift more responsibility for regional defense to allied governments.

How did Nixon's Vietnam policy change U.S. involvement in the war?

Through negotiations with North Vietnam and a policy associated with Vietnamization, Nixon withdrew U.S. troops from South Vietnam. The last U.S. soldiers were withdrawn in 1973, and the military draft ended that year.

How did Congress respond to Nixon's use of presidential war powers?

Concerned about executive power after the Vietnam War, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution over Nixon's veto. The law sought to limit the president's ability to commit U.S. forces without congressional authorization.

War Powers Resolution

The War Powers Resolution was passed by Congress over Nixon's veto to limit the president's ability to commit U.S. forces without congressional authorization. It reflected congressional concern about executive power after the Vietnam War.

How did the 1972 presidential election differ from Nixon's 1968 victory?

Nixon defeated Democrat George McGovern in a landslide in 1972. Although he had previously campaigned as a highly partisan Republican, Nixon emphasized national unity and downplayed party divisions during the reelection campaign.

How did Watergate begin?

During the 1972 campaign, Nixon operatives conducted illegal operations against the opposition. The break-in and arrest of five burglars at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate complex exposed the scandal.

What was the Committee for the Re-Election of the President's connection to Watergate?

The committee was associated with Nixon's 1972 reelection effort and with illegal operations intended to undermine the Democratic opposition. Its activities became central to the developing Watergate scandal.

Why were Nixon's White House tapes important to the Watergate investigation?

A tape revealed that Nixon had known about the White House connection to the Watergate burglars soon after the break-in. This contradicted his denials and led the House of Representatives to begin impeachment proceedings.

What was the significance of United States v. Nixon?

In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court rejected Nixon's claim of absolute executive privilege and ordered him to release White House tapes relevant to the Watergate investigation. The decision reinforced that the president is subject to judicial process.

What was the Saturday Night Massacre?

During the Watergate investigation, Nixon ordered the firing of special prosecutor Archibald Cox after Cox sought access to presidential tapes. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus resigned rather than carry out the order, intensifying demands for Nixon's impeachment.

What was the relationship between Watergate and Nixon's resignation?

As evidence of the cover-up emerged, Nixon faced almost certain impeachment by the House and removal by the Senate. He resigned on August 9, 1974, before Congress could complete the process.

Why is Nixon's resignation constitutionally significant?

Nixon was the only U.S. president to resign from office. His resignation demonstrated the potential consequences of congressional oversight and the impeachment process for executive misconduct.

What major political realignment was associated with Nixon's presidency?

Nixon's presidency helped begin an era in which Republican presidents held the White House for 20 of the following 24 years, lasting until 1993. His appeals to socially conservative voters and some traditionally Democratic white voters contributed to this shift.

How did Nixon's presidency reflect both continuity and change in Period 8?

Nixon continued postwar federal involvement in areas such as environmental protection, civil rights enforcement, and social programs, while pursuing a conservative political realignment and New Federalism. His administration also marked change through détente, the opening to China, the end of the Bretton Woods system, and the growing crisis of executive power revealed by Watergate.

How have historians generally evaluated Nixon's presidency?

Although some scholars argue that Nixon's achievements were overlooked because of his misconduct, surveys of historians and political scientists generally rank his presidency below average. His foreign-policy accomplishments are often weighed against Watergate and the abuse of executive power.