AP Chemistry

CED topics 1.1 Moles and Molar Mass, 1.2 Mass Spectra of Elements, 1.3 Elemental Composition of Pure Substances. Covers the mole concept, molar mass calculations, isotopic composition from mass spectra, and percent composition of pure substances.

CED topic 1.4 Composition of Mixtures. Covers identifying pure substances vs mixtures, calculating composition of mixtures, and separating mixtures by composition.

CED topics 1.5 Atomic Structure and Electron Configuration, 1.6 Photoelectron Spectroscopy. Covers quantum numbers, Aufbau principle, electron configurations of atoms and ions, and using photoelectron spectra to determine electron configuration and subshell energies.

CED topics 1.7 Periodic Trends, 1.8 Valence Electrons and Ionic Compounds. Covers atomic and ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity trends, and how valence electrons determine ionic compound formation.

CED topics 2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds, 2.2 Intramolecular Force and Potential Energy. Covers ionic vs covalent vs metallic bonding, bond energy, bond length, and potential energy diagrams for bonding interactions.

CED topics 2.3 Structure of Ionic Solids, 2.4 Structure of Metals and Alloys. Covers crystal lattice structures of ionic compounds, unit cells, metallic bonding models, and properties of alloys.

CED topics 2.5 Lewis Diagrams, 2.6 Resonance and Formal Charge. Covers drawing Lewis structures, octet rule exceptions, formal charge calculations, resonance structures, and choosing the best Lewis structure.

CED topic 2.7 VSEPR and Bond Hybridization. Covers VSEPR theory for molecular geometry, hybridization of atomic orbitals (sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2), sigma and pi bonds, and molecular polarity.

CED topics 3.1 Intermolecular Forces, 3.2 Properties of Solids. Covers London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole forces, and how IMFs determine properties of solids (melting point, hardness, conductivity). Types of solids: molecular, ionic, metallic, covalent network.

CED topics 3.3 Solids, Liquids, and Gases, 3.4 Ideal Gas Law. Covers kinetic molecular description of states, gas pressure, the ideal gas law PV=nRT, combined gas law, and Dalton's law of partial pressures.

CED topics 3.5 Kinetic Molecular Theory, 3.6 Deviations from Ideal Gas Law. Covers KMT postulates, root-mean-square speed, Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, effusion and diffusion (Graham's law), and real gas behavior with van der Waals equation.

CED topics 3.7 Solutions and Mixtures, 3.8 Representations of Solutions. Covers the dissolution process, solvation, electrolytes vs nonelectrolytes, molarity, molality, and particulate-level representations of solutions.

CED topics 3.9 Separation of Solutions and Mixtures (Chromatography), 3.10 Solubility. Covers separation methods including chromatography, distillation, and filtration; factors affecting solubility (temperature, pressure, nature of solute/solvent), and Henry's law.

CED topics 3.11 Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum, 3.12 Photoelectric Effect. Covers the EM spectrum, wave-particle duality, photon energy E=hv, absorption and emission spectra, and the photoelectric effect.

CED topic 3.13 Beer-Lambert Law. Covers the relationship between absorbance, concentration, and path length (A = εbc), using calibration curves, and colorimetric analysis.

CED topics 4.1 Introduction for Reactions, 4.2 Net Ionic Equations. Covers writing and balancing chemical equations, identifying spectator ions, writing net ionic equations, and the conventions for states of matter in equations.

CED topics 4.3 Representations of Reactions, 4.4 Physical and Chemical Changes. Covers molecular-level representations of reactions, distinguishing physical changes from chemical changes, and evidence of chemical change.

CED topics 4.5 Stoichiometry, 4.6 Introduction to Titration. Covers mole-to-mole ratios, limiting reactant calculations, theoretical and percent yield, and the basic principles of titration including equivalence point.

CED topics 4.7 Types of Chemical Reactions, 4.8 Introduction to Acid-Base Reactions. Covers synthesis, decomposition, combustion, single and double displacement reactions; precipitation reactions; and acid-base neutralization including Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry definitions.

CED topic 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions. Covers assigning oxidation numbers, identifying oxidizing and reducing agents, balancing redox reactions in acidic and basic solutions, half-reactions, and disproportionation.

CED topics 5.1 Reaction Rates, 5.2 Introduction to Rate Law. Covers defining and measuring reaction rates, rate law expressions, reaction orders (zero, first, second), and determining rate laws from experimental data (method of initial rates).

CED topic 5.3 Concentration Changes over Time. Covers integrated rate laws for zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions; half-life calculations; and using graphical analysis (ln vs t, 1/[A] vs t) to determine reaction order.

CED topics 5.4 Elementary Reactions, 5.5 Collision Model. Covers molecularity of elementary steps (unimolecular, bimolecular, termolecular), collision theory, activation energy, steric factor, and how temperature affects reaction rate.

CED topics 5.6 Reaction Energy Profile, 5.10 Multistep Reaction Energy Profile. Covers energy diagrams (activated complex, activation energy, enthalpy change), energy profiles for multistep mechanisms, and identifying intermediates and transition states on energy diagrams.

CED topics 5.7 Introduction to Reaction Mechanism, 5.8 Reaction Mechanism and Rate Law. Covers identifying the rate-determining step, deriving the rate law from a mechanism, pre-equilibrium approximation, and relationship between mechanism and observed rate law.

CED topics 5.9 Steady-State Approximation, 5.11 Catalysis. Covers the steady-state approximation for complex mechanisms, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, enzyme catalysis, and how catalysts affect energy profiles.

CED topics 6.1 Endothermic and Exothermic Processes, 6.2 Energy Diagrams. Covers energy changes in chemical reactions, distinguishing endothermic from exothermic processes, and interpreting energy diagrams including activation energy and enthalpy change.

CED topics 6.3 Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium, 6.4 Heat Capacity and Calorimetry. Covers heat flow, thermal equilibrium, specific heat capacity, constant-pressure and constant-volume calorimetry, and q = mcΔT calculations.

CED topic 6.5 Energy of Phase Changes. Covers enthalpy of fusion, enthalpy of vaporization, heating curves, calculating energy for temperature changes and phase transitions, and phase diagrams.

CED topics 6.6 Introduction to Enthalpy of Reaction, 6.7 Bond Enthalpies. Covers enthalpy as a state function, ΔH = q_p, calculating reaction enthalpy from bond enthalpies (breaking bonds endothermic, forming bonds exothermic), and limitations of bond enthalpy method.

CED topics 6.8 Enthalpy of Formation, 6.9 Hess's Law. Covers standard enthalpy of formation, calculating reaction enthalpy from formation enthalpies (ΔH°rxn = ΣnΔH°f(products) - ΣnΔH°f(reactants)), and Hess's law for combining thermochemical equations.

CED topics 7.1 Introduction to Equilibrium, 7.2 Direction of Reversible Reactions. Covers dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium state, forward and reverse reaction rates, and predicting direction of shift based on relative rates.

CED topics 7.3 Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium Constant, 7.4 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant. Covers the reaction quotient Q, the equilibrium constant Kc and Kp, writing equilibrium expressions, and calculating K from equilibrium concentrations.

CED topics 7.5 Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant, 7.6 Properties of the Equilibrium Constant. Covers interpreting K values (K>>1 favors products, K<<1 favors reactants), relationship between K forward and K reverse, and K for reactions combined or reversed.

CED topics 7.7 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations, 7.8 Representations of Equilibrium. Covers ICE table calculations, solving for equilibrium concentrations, and particulate-level representations of equilibrium systems.

CED topics 7.9 Introduction to Le Chatelier's Principle, 7.10 Reaction Quotient and Le Chatelier's Principle. Covers how concentration, pressure, temperature, and volume changes shift equilibrium, using Q vs K to predict direction of shift, and the effect of catalysts on equilibrium.

CED topics 7.11 Introduction to Solubility Equilibria, 7.12 Common-Ion Effect. Covers Ksp expressions, calculating solubility from Ksp, predicting precipitation (Q vs Ksp), and how the common-ion effect reduces solubility.

CED topics 7.13 pH and Solubility, 7.14 Free Energy of Dissolution. Covers how pH affects solubility of salts with basic anions, selective precipitation, and the thermodynamic relationship between free energy and dissolution (ΔG = -RT ln Ksp).

CED topics 8.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases, 8.2 pH and pOH of Strong Acids and Bases. Covers Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory, conjugate acid-base pairs, autoionization of water, Kw, and pH/pOH calculations for strong acids and bases.

CED topics 8.3 Weak Acids and Base Equilibria, 8.6 Molecular Structure of Acids and Bases. Covers Ka and Kb expressions, percent ionization, calculating pH of weak acid/base solutions, and how molecular structure (electronegativity, bond strength, resonance) affects acid strength.

CED topics 8.4 Acid-Base Reactions and Buffers, 8.8 Properties of Buffers. Covers neutralization reactions, hydrolysis of salts, what buffers are and how they resist pH change, and identifying buffer systems.

CED topic 8.5 Acid-Base Titrations. Covers titration curves for strong acid-strong base and weak acid-strong base, equivalence point vs half-equivalence point, choosing indicators, and polyprotic acid titrations.

CED topics 8.7 pH and pKa, 8.9 Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation, 8.10 Buffer Capacity. Covers the relationship between pH and pKa (pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA])), using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for buffer design, and factors affecting buffer capacity.

CED topics 9.1 Introduction to Entropy, 9.2 Absolute Entropy and Entropy Change. Covers the concept of entropy as disorder/microstates, the second and third laws of thermodynamics, standard molar entropies, and calculating entropy changes for reactions.

CED topics 9.3 Gibbs Free Energy and Thermodynamic Favorability, 9.4 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control. Covers the Gibbs free energy equation ΔG = ΔH - TΔS, predicting spontaneity from ΔG, the effect of temperature on favorability, and the distinction between thermodynamic favorability and kinetic rate.

CED topics 9.5 Free Energy and Equilibrium, 9.6 Coupled Reactions. Covers the relationship ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln Q, ΔG° = -RT ln K, how equilibrium relates to thermodynamic favorability, and how unfavorable reactions can be driven by coupling to favorable ones.

CED topics 9.7 Galvanic (Voltaic) and Electrolytic Cells, 9.8 Cell Potential and Free Energy. Covers galvanic cell components (anode, cathode, salt bridge), cell notation, standard reduction potentials, calculating E°cell, and the relationship between cell potential and Gibbs free energy (ΔG° = -nFE°).

CED topics 9.9 Cell Potential Under Nonstandard Conditions, 9.10 Electrolysis and Faraday's Law. Covers the Nernst equation for nonstandard conditions, concentration cells, electrolytic cells, Faraday's laws of electrolysis, and calculating quantities in electrolysis (moles of electrons, mass deposited).